The Jammu and Kashmir Democratic Freedom Party (JKDFP): was founded in 1998 by Hashim Qureshi and  Shabir Ahmad Shah as a separatist party that advocates self-rule for Jammu and Kashmir.

The Jammu and Kashmir People’s Democratic Party (PDP): was founded in 1999 by Mufti Mohammed Sayeed and is a separatist party that advocates self-rule for Jammu and Kashmir.

The All Parties Hurriyat Conference (APHC): was founded in 1993 and is a political front formed as an alliance of 26 political, social and religious organisations in Kashmir. One of the main objectives of the APHC is ascend the Indian controlled regions of Kashmir to Pakistan and to instate Islamic governance.

photo by P.Morgan, published under the creative commons license

The Indian National Congress (INC): is one of the two major political parties in India and is considered centre-left in the Indian political spectrum. In the 2009 general election it formed a coalition with a number of allies called the UPA and was able to form a majority and form a government.

The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP): is India’s second largest political party and is considered centre-right in the Indian political spectrum and is the Hindu-National party. They were in power from 1998 to 2004 when Atal Bihari Vajpayee was Prime Minister.

The Jammu and Kashmir National Conference Party (NCP): was founded by Sheikh Abduallah in 1939 and dominated electoral politics for many decades in the state, it is now being led by his grandson Omar Abdullah. They are a moderate separatist party and call for Jammu and Kashmir’s right to self-determination and autonomy.

Militant Groups:

Jaish-e-Mohammed: is a militant organisation that operates in Kashmir but is based in Pakistan. The group’s main aim is to ascend the Indian controlled regions of Kashmir to Pakistan and to instate Islamic governance and has carried out several attacks. It has been banned in Pakistan since 2002 and its Commander-in–Chief Masood Azhar is currently imprisoned in Pakistan, however, the group continues to operate.

Hizb-ul-Mujahideen: is a militant organisation that has operated in Kashmir since 1989 and is the militant wing of the Kashmiri political and religious group Jamaat-e-Islami. The current leader of the group is a Kashmiri known as Sayeed Salahudeen who resides in Pakistan. The group is considered by many to be the most widely supported and populist militant group active in the conflict.

Lashkar-e-Taiba: was founded in 1994 as the militant wing of the Marqaz, a centre which was founded in the 1980s by Hafiz Mohammed Saeed and is one the largest and most active of the militant operations. They have taken responsibility for a number of violent attacks including the Red Fort attacks in Delhi in 2000. India has also accused them of being responsible for the 2009 Mumbai attacks. They differ from the other main militant groups as most of their members are non-Kashmiri. They are an extremely well-known and prominent group in Pakistan. However, they have been banned since 2002 in Pakistan, but they continue to operate and include different factions.

photo by mfr_isb@yahoo.com published under the creative commons license

Key People:

Farooq Abdullah: Has dominated local politics for years and is the son of Sheikh Mohammed, who founded the National Conference Party. While he has accepted that Kashmir should remain part of the Indian Union, he has campaigned for its greater autonomy. He has been criticised for shifting his allegiances to political parties, but is currently an ally of the BJP.

Omar Abdullah: Is the son of Farooq Abdullah and was made head of the National Conference in 2008, he resigned in 2009 amid allegations of a sex scandal, however he is currently still in the party and is Chief Minister for Jammu and Kashmir.

Shabir Shah: Is a high profile campaigner for Kashmiri independence since the late 1960s, and has spent much of his life in Indian jails. However, he was suspended from the APHC due to political disagreements and went on to found his own party in 1998 called the Jammu Kashmir Democratic Freedom Party (JKDFP).

Abdul Gani Bhat: Is another key player in Kashmiri politics and advocates for Kashmir’s accession to Pakistan. In 1993 his party, the Muslim Conference, became part of the main Kashmiri separatists alliance the APHC. He recently claimed that other separatists involved in the conflicts had assassinated some high profile leaders in the separatist movement and his own brother.

photo by kiyanwang, published under the creative commons license

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Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca (URNG): (‘The Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity’, in English) Started as a guerrilla movement but laid down their arms in 1996 at the end of the war, and now functions as a political party.

Fuerzas Armadas Rebeldes (FAR): The FAR (‘Rebel Armed Forces’, in English) A Guatemalan guerrilla organisation formed in 1961, and disbanded with the peace accords were signed.

Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres (EGP):The EGP (‘Guerrilla Army of the Poor’, in English) Formed in 1972, a Marxist group involved in the conflict and the signing of the peace accords.

Organización Revolucionaria del Pueblo en Armas (ORPA): (
(Revolutionary Organization of the People in Arms’, in English) Started in 1978 by local youth and university intellectuals, this rebel group was one of the four to sign the peace accords in 1996.

Mano Blanca:(‘White Hand’, in English) Right-wing paramilitary group active during the civil war, linked with a number of attacks on left-wing targets.

Unidad Nacional de Esperanza (UNE):(‘National Union of Hope’, in English) Social democratic party currently incumbent in Guatemala; led by the President, Álvaro Colom Caballeros.

International Commission Against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG): The CICIG is an independent investigative body established by a treaty between the UN and Guatemala. It’s main objective is investigating and dismantling violent criminal organisations in Guatemala. In June 2010 the head of the commission resigned, claiming that the government has not kept its promises to reform the justice system.

UN Verification Mission in Guatemala (MINUGUA): This peacekeeping mission was established in 1997 to verify compliance with the 1996 Peace Accords.

People

Álvaro Colom Caballeros: The current president of Guatemala was elected in 2008, and his term will last until 2012. He is the leader of UNE, a social-democratic party. Mr Colom, an ordained Mayan minister, won large support from indigenous groups in Guatemala, and for his promises to take a strong hand to the country’s social problems. His leadership came under pressure in 2009 when he was accused of the murder of Rodrigo Rosenberg; a UN investigation cleared Mr Colom of any involvement, stating that Mr Rosenberg had ordered his own assassination.

Alfonso Antonio Portillo Cabrera: Alfonso Portillo was the Guatemalan President between 2000 and 2004. In January 2010 he was arrested by the Guatemalan government over charges of money laundering made by the US government.

Col. Carlos Castillo Armas: Castillo Armas led the group that overthrew Arbenz in 1954. He was murdered in 1958.

Gen. Efraín Ríos Montt: Dictator of Guatemala between 1982 and 1983. His brief presidency is considered one of the most violent periods of the conflict. Ríos Montt remains a hugely divisive figure, seen by human rights campaigners as the leader of a genocidal campaign against the Maya, he also maintains strong support from some sectors of Guatemalan society. He failed in another attempt for the presidency in 2003, and afterwards had to fight off possible conviction for crimes against humanity.

Col. Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán:President, 1951-54. Árbenz’s land reforms led to his US-backed overthrow and replacement by a succession of military and civilian governments.

Carlos Castresana: Head of the Comisión Internacional contra la Impunidad en Guatemala (CICIG; ‘International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala’ in English) until his resignation in June 2010. Castresana cited frustration with the government’s reluctance to support his work as the reason for his resignation.

Francisco Dall’Anese Ruiz: Recently (July 2010) appointed head of the CICIG. Ruiz was previously the Attorney General of Costa Rica and is know for being tough on organised crime and corruption.

Ethnicity in Guatemala

Guatemala is one of the countries in the Americas with the highest proportion of people of indigenous background. The vast majority of the indigenous population are of Mayan descent; depending on the source and the definition used (for example, self-definition or if the person doing the census can decide the person’s ethnicity), the Mayan population make up either a little more or a little less than half the population. The remainder of the population is mostly made up of those called ‘ladinos’ (or sometimes ‘mestizos’), people of European descent or mixed European and Mayan descent. There are other ethnic communities present, the largest of which are the Garifuna.

There is significant diversity with the Mayan groups, with other 20 different languages spoken across the country (and even significant dialect differences within each language). The largest Mayan groups are the K’iche’, Kaqchikel, Mam and Q’eqchi.

Although only around half of the population of the country, the Maya population suffered the vast majority of atrocities during the period of the armed conflict, with an estimated 200,000 people killed in total. For this reason, the Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico (CEH; Historical Clarification Commission’, in English) found that acts of genocide had been committed against the Maya. The CEH also found the state responsible for 93% of the human rights violations.

Mayan groups: There are over 40 indigenous Mayan groups in Guatemala. The indigenous peoples suffered greatly during the civil war and are growing in political power.

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Jalal Talabani: The current President of Iraq and leader of the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK).

Ali Al-Sistani: Al-Sistani is a Grand Ayatollah with large political influence.

Amar Al-Hakim: Al-Hakim is the leader of the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq.

Ayad Allawi: Allawi is the former Prime Minister of Iraq and leader of the secular Iraqiya list.

Barham Saleh: The current Kurdistan Regional Government Prime Minister.

Kurds: Kurds represent 25 per cent of the Iraqi population. Many Kurds hold dreams of an independent Kurdish state, this is unlikely to be achieved given the vehement opposition of Turkey and other regional powers; Turkey launched air raids on the Kurdish region in 2007, claiming that Kurdish rebels had been using the region as a base for attacks on Turkish soil. The Kurdish region was officially recognised as an independent federal Region of Iraq in the Iraqi Constitution ratified in 2005. It is governed by the Kurdish Regional Government run by a President, Prime Minister, a National Assembly and its own Constitution.

Massoud Barzani: The current Kurdistan Regional Government President and leader of the Kurdistan Democratic Party (PDK).

Moqtada Al-Sadr: Al-Sadr is a powerful religious and political leader at the head of the Sadrist list.

Nouri al-Maliki: The current Prime Minister of Iraq and leader of the State of Law Coalition.

Saddam Hussein: Saddam is the former President of Iraq and leading member of the Baath party. Saddam was executed on December 2006 for crimes against humanity, specifically the execution of 148 Shiites from Dujail in retaliation for an assassination attempt. When executed he was facing further charges of crimes against humanity, including charges relating to a campaign against the Kurds in the 1980s, which were dropped after his execution.

Sunnis: Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam. There are both Sunni Arabs and Sunni Kurds in Iraq; in total they comprise approximately 25 per cent of the Iraqi population.

Shi’ites: The term Shi’ites or Shiites is an Anglicisation of Shi’as, who are the second largest branch of Islam. In Iraq the Shi’a make up the majority (60 per cent) of the population.

Parties

State of Law: Led by al-Maliki the State of Law coalition is cast as a secular, nationalist organisation, however whilst some small ethnic, religious and secular groups have joined the alliance the lack of larger groups and personalities prevents it from appearing truly secular.

Iraqi National Movement: the Iraqi National Alliance is the successor to the United Iraqi Alliance, following the departure of the Dawa party, who left to form the State of Law coalition. It consists of mostly Shiite parties, with only a couple of smaller Sunni and Kurdish members.

Iraqiya (Iraqi National Movement): Led by Ayad Allawi, the Iraqiya list coalition won the most seats in the 2010 election (91). The party is cross-sectarian and secular.

Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK): Kurdish political party led by Jalal Talabani.

Kurdistan Democratic Party (PDK): Kurdish political party led by Massoud Barzani.

Baath party: The Baath party is a secular, pan-Arab nationalist party that originated in Syria during the middle of the twentieth century. The party seized power by a coup in Iraq in 1968, and retained control of the country until the US-led invasion of 2003. Iraq attempted to ban 15 political parties with Baathist ties from the 2010 parliamentary elections, however a court later lifted the ban.

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Yoweri Museveni: Museveni, the current President of Uganda, came to power in 1986 after waging a five-year long guerrilla war against Milton Obote.  Although initially lauded by the international community for his work in growing the Ugandan economy, critics began to emerge after Uganda’s invasion of DR Congo in 1997-8, and more recently over the abolition of limits to the presidential term.

Joseph Kony: Kony is the notorious leader of the LRA who are fighting the Ugandan government. Wanted by the ICC for war crimes, which include the abduction of around 30,000 children. He allegedly wants to establish a state based on the biblical Ten Commandments, however, he remains elusive after 25 years.

Kizza Besigye: Besigye is the leader of the Forum for Democratic Change, a leading opposition party in Uganda.

Key parties and militant groups

National Resistance Movement (NRM): The current ruling political party and has been led by Yoweri Museveni since 1986. The NRM was the political wing of the milita group the National Resistance Army that overthrew Okello’s goverment in 1985. This was seen as a turning point for Ugandan politics.

Forum for Democratic Change: The main opposition party to the NRM and was founded in 2004, being made up of many former NRM party members and followers who became disillusioned with Museveni’s goverment and disagreed with constitutional changes, which allowed Museveni to be elected for a third term.

The Uganda People’s Congress (UPC): The UPC was founded in 1955 by Milton Obote and was the first political party in power after Independence. However, the Party performed poorly in the 2006 elections.

Uganda National Liberation Front: The Uganda National Liberation Front led the coalition that overthrew Idi Amin in 1979.

Image with thanks to Marie Havens, published under the Creative Commons Lisence

Uganda National Rescue Front: The Uganda National Rescue Front first formed to oppose Milton Obote during his second term, and later as a break away of the West Nile Bank Front that did not make peace with Museveni in 1996.

Peoples Redemption Army: The People’s Redemption Army is a rebel group based in Eastern DR Congo.  The Ugandan government claims the group are supported by Rwanda, and have tried (unsuccessfully) to link them to the opposition leader, Kizza Besigye.  The Rwandan president, Paul Kagame, claimed in 2006 that the PRA were a fictitious organisation.

West Nile Bank Front: The West Nile Bank Front is a group led by Juma Oris.  They were considered defeated in 1997.

Allied Democratic Front: The Allied Democratic Front are a rebel group based in Western Uganda and DR Congo.  Thought to have been largely defeated in 2003, there are claims that they have been trying to re-establish themselves in Ugandan territory.

Lord’s Resistance Army: The Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) is a militant group that has been engaged in conflict with the Ugandan government for over 20 years.  The group is led by Joseph Kony, and claim to be fighting for the establishment of a government based on the Ten Commandments.  The LRA has committed numerous atrocities, and is particularly known for the abduction of children, who are forced to become rebels or concubines.

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Charles Taylor: Leader of the NPFL and former President, currently on trial for war crimes in Sierra Leone. Taylor supported Doe’s 1980 coup and served as a minister in his government until 1983 when he fled to America after being accused of the embezzlement of nearly $1,000,000. After escaping a US prison where he was awaiting extradition to Liberia, he fled to Libya and received the training and support that allowed him to form the NPFL. Taylor was heavily involved in the Sierra Leonean Civil War, and gave overt backing to the RUF. In 2003 he was indicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone for his part in war crimes. He is currently facing trail in the Hague.

Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf: Current President of Liberia, and first female president of an African country. Initially supportive of Taylor’s coup against Doe, she soon went on to oppose him.

National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL): Rebel group led by Charles Taylor that began the first civil war. Estimated to have been around 25,000 men strong. Accused of widespread human rights abuses, including the use of child soldiers.

National Patriotic Party (NPP): The political party led by Charles Taylor. Despite winning the 1997 by a landslide, the party received just over 4 per cent in 2005, and now has only 4 seats in both the House of Representatives and Senate.

Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL): Splinter group of the NPFL. It was the INPFL which captured, tortured, and killed Doe in 1990.

Prince Yormie Johnson: Leader of the INFPL. Johnson briefly claimed the presidency after Doe’s death, but fled to Nigeria when it was clear Taylor had control of most of the country, and played no part in the second civil war. He is now a serving Senator in the Liberian government.

UNMIL: The 15,000 strong United Nations peacekeeping mission in Liberia. Established in 2003 to support the Comprehensive Peace Agreement signed in Accra. Its mandate currently extends to September 2010.

Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group (ECOMAG): Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) peacekeeping force, which intervened in the first civil war, in an attempt to stop the warring factions taking the violence in Monrovia. ECOMOG withdrew after the elections of Taylor. A similar force under the name ECOMIL was sent into Monrovia in 2003.

Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD): Emerged in 1999 in the North west of Liberia, with the aim of ousting Taylor from power. Made up of mostly muslim fighters from the Mandingo & Khran groups. By 2003 it had advanced into Monrovia. LURD initially operated from within Guinea and is alleged to have been supported by the governments of Sierra Leone and Guinea.

Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL): A rebel group that emerged in the south of the country towards the end of the second civil war. Believed to have been backed by Ivory Coast.

Revolutionary United Front (RUF): Rebel group in Sierra Leone. Received support from Charles Taylor. RUF was involved in widespread, systematic war crimes, including the use of amputation as a weapon of war against the civilian population, the use of child soldiers, and heavy involvement in the illicit diamond trade.

Special Court for Sierra Leone: Set up in 2002 to try those responsible for war crimes committed during the civil war. Charles Taylor is currently standing trial in the Hauge.

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Israel: as with many conflicts in the Middle East, the ongoing war along the Israeli-Lebanese border is part of a longer and altogether larger Arab-Israeli dispute. Relationships between Lebanon and Israel have always been strained, but the major flashpoints have occurred in 1978 , 1982, and 2006 (For more information see our Conflict Timeline)

Syria: the country has been both foe and friend to Lebanon. In 2005 Syria removed some 14,000 troops from Lebanon, easing the tension between these neighbours. In 2008 the two countries met for talks for the first time in 40 years.

Hassan Nasrallah: leader of the Lebanese Shi’ite Muslim militant group Hezbollah since 1992.

Hezbollah:  – or Party of God – is the region’s leading radical Islamic movement and emerged in Lebanon in the early 1980s. It is determined to drive Israeli troops from Lebanon. Hezbollah has embraced the Palestinian cause.

President Michel Suleiman: elected as President of Lebanon in May 2008. He is the former commander of Lebanese Armed Forces and has gained the trust of both Arab and Western countries.

Saad al-Hariri: the current Prime Minister is best known as the son of assassinated Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, who was killed by a car bomb in 2005.

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Southern-based militant groups function within a fluid and dynamic system. Broadly speaking they share similar objectives – an independent or relatively autonomous status for Pattani – however they differ widely in their approaches and capabilities. Whilst many tens of splinter groups exist, it is hard to determine which are smaller offshoots of larger groups and which are independent entities. This section includes some of the key paramilitary groups active in the region:

BRN-Coordinate (BRN-C) Pattani Malay National Revolutionary Front-Coordinate, or Barisan Revolusi Nasional Pattani-Melayu-Koordinasi: thought to be one of the key groups behind much of the violence in the far south. It is one of three politically more moderate factions that formed in the 1980s from splits in the original BRN (which was established in 1960).  The other two factions, BRN-Ulema and BRN-Congress, are now largely defunct.

The Pattani United Liberation Organization (PULO): Formed in 1968, PULO was the most active group in the 1970s and 1980s. It claims to have a working relationship with the BRN-C but is not thought to have much command over current insurgent operations. PULO is seen as more of a political umbrella organisation for the myriad paramilitary groups thought to be involved in the insurgency. Today, it operates mainly from exile in Syria and Sweden, from where a number of websites are run, carrying news from the region as well as political statements.

Islamic Mujahidin Movement of Pattani (GMIP), or Gerakan Mujahidin Islam Pattani: Established by Afghanistan war veterans in 1995 and is committed to forming an independent Islamic state. GMIP is suspected of having links to international Islamist militant organisations.

Bersatu (the United Front for the Independence of Pattani or Barisan Bersatu Merdeka Pattani): Formed in 1989 out of four smaller groups: BRN-Congress, elements of PULO, the then GMP (now defunct), and Barisan Islam Pembebsan Pattani, and the now largely defunct Islamic Front for the Liberation of Pattani.

Pemuda: Meaning ‘youth’ in Malay, has been adopted as the name of a youth movement closely associated with BRN-C. Pemuda members are largely thought to be involved with providing logistical support, intelligence gathering and other non-violent aspects of the independence movement. However, some intelligence sources claim they are involved in more violent attacks, including drive-by assassinations and bombings.

Barisan Nasional Pembebasan Pattani(BNPP), or National Liberation Front of Pattani: Considered the first organised armed resistance group. It reorganised in 1960, but traces its origin to a local revolt in 1947 in Narathiwat. Reasonably active in the 1970s and early 1980s, it is now believed to be defunct.

Royal Thai Army: Around 30,000 troops are stationed in the restive southern border provinces in an attempt to quell the insurgency. Troops fall under the command of the Commander-in-Chief of the RTA, General Anupong Paochinda (as of August 2010), and the head of the Fourth Region Army, General Pichet Wisaichorn (as of August 2010).

Wider Political Unrest

People

Yingluck Shinawatra: Youngest sister of Thaksin, leader of the Pheu Thai party and likely the country’s first female Prime Minister. The 44-year-old telegenic businesswoman captivated the country in her 2011 election campaign, completely wrong footing her political rivals and leading her party to a majority victory. Many see her, however, as nothing more than a proxy for her brother.

Abhisit Vejjajiva: Former Prime Minster of Thailand and leader of the Democrat Party since 2005. The England-born, Oxford-educated economist was seen by many as a shining hope for the future of Thai politics but his reputation has been tarnished amid continuing political turmoil since coming to power and the violent crackdown on anti-government protesters in May 2010.

King Bhumibol Adulyadej: Thailand’s much-revered head of state. Ruling over a constitutional monarchy, King Bhumibol assumed the throne in 1946 and is now the world’s longest reigning monarch. His health has been an issue of concern for many years but anxiety over the succession of the throne remains largely a taboo subject.

Thaksin Shinawatra: The highly controversial and divisive former Prime Minister of Thailand (2001 – 2006) and founder of the Thai Rak Thai party.  Thaksin was deposed as Prime Minister in a military coup in 2006. The former telecoms tycoon and multi-billionaire businessman is currently in self-imposed exile overseas after being found guilty in absentia of corruption and sentenced to a two-year jail term. Thaksin is accused of bankrolling the ‘red shirt’ protests movement that has been seeking to oust the Democrat-led coalition government since it came to office in December 2008.

Sondhi Limthongkul: Controversial media mogul and businessman who broke away from his former ally Thaksin Shinawatra to found the People’s Alliance for Democracy (PAD) protest movement.

Gen Prem Tinsulanonda: Highly-influential Privy Council President and former Prime Minister (1980 – 1988), accused by his opponents of masterminding the September 2006 coup to oust then Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra.

Prince Maha Vajiralongkorn: Crown Prince of Thailand and heir to the throne.

Newin Chidchob: influential politician and former Thai Rak Thai cabinet member and Thaksin ally. He is the de-facto leader of the Bhum Jai Thai Party, which defected from the pro-Thaksin coalition in December 2008, paving the way for the Democrat Party to lead a new coalition government.

Jatuporn Prompan: Peua Thai Party MP and one of the core leaders of the UDD. Jatuporn was arrested following the May 19, 2010 crackdown on “red shirt” protesters. He was a former student protest leader in the 1992 pro-democracy uprising and a former Phalang Dharma and Thai Rak Thai party MP.

Political Parties and Organisations

Democrat Party: Thailand’s oldest political party (formed 1946) and leader of the coalition government since December 2008. Support largely drawn from upper and middle classes, Bangkok and the south of Thailand.

Peua Thai Party: Pro-Thaksin political party formed in late 2008 by members of the People’s Power Party (PPP), which was dissolved by the Constitutional Court for electoral fraud in December 2008. The PPP itself was formed from the ashes of the Thai Rak Thai party, which was also dissolved by a military-appointed court following the 2006 coup.

People’s Power Party (PPP): A pro-Thaksin political party founded in November 1998. Briefly led by Thaksin Shinawatra in 2007 after his disposal as Prime Minister. After the party was dissolved by the Constitutional Court of Thailand in December 2008, the majority of PPP politicians joined the newly formed Peua Thai Party.

People Alliance for Democracy (PAD): Originally formed in 2005 out of a coalition of politicians, activists and others groups united against then Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra. Their protest movement paved the way for the 2006 military coup. PAD protesters, also known as the ‘yellow shirts’, were also responsible for a range of high profile protests during 2008 and 2009, including taking over Bangkok’s main airport and a months-long siege of Government House.

New Politics Party: The official political party born out of the PAD movement.

United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship (UDD): A loose coalition of former leftist student leaders, communists, political activists and others that formed to oppose the military coup of September 2006 and subsequent military government. The UDD, known as the ‘red shirts’, were behind mass protests and a siege of central Bangkok in 2010 calling for the dissolution of parliament and new elections.  A military crackdown on the protests in 2010 led to the worst political violence witnessed on the streets of Bangkok in nearly two decades.

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Mai-Mai militia: The term Mai-Mai is a generic term that refers to any community-led militia formed with the intention of defending their territory against other armed groups. The term does not describe any particular movement, affiliation or political objective, but groups which can be led by tribal elders, warlords, village heads or politically-motivated resistance fighters. Many were formed to resist the invasion of Rwandan forces and Rwandan-affiliated Congolese rebel groups. However, others have formed simply to exploit the war for their own means, such as by banditry, looting or cattle rustling. The two most powerful and well-organised Mai-Mai groups in the Kivus were led by Generals Padiri and Dunia. They were reported to have received aid from the DR Congo government and are widely viewed by other Mai-Mai groups as the leaders, though not the commanders, of the Kivu Mai-Mai. A number of smaller Mai-Mai groups, such as the Mudundu 40/Front de Résistance et de Défense du Kivu (FRDKI) and Mouvement de Lutte contre l’Agression au Zaïre/Forces Unies de Résistance Nationale contre l’Agression de la Républíque Démocratique du Congo (MLAZ/FURNAC), were reported to cooperate with the Rwandan military and RCD-Goma. This demonstrates how different Mai-Mai groups have allied themselves with a variety of domestic and foreign government and guerrilla groups at different times. Due to their lack of internal cohesion it has been very difficult to get the Mai-Mai involved in peace agreements, and it is often down to programmes of demobilisation, demilitarisation and reintegration (DDR) to get these militia to lay down their weapons.

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Neighbouring Countries/International Actors

Rwanda: Following the genocide of 1994, millions of Hutus, fearing retaliatory violence, fled Rwanda to neighbouring DR Congo. Among those refugees were elements of the Interahamwe militia groups responsible for the genocide, and upon arrival in DR Congo, continued their campaign of ethnic violence. Mobuto, with his grip on power loosening, did nothing to stop them, causing Rwanda to back the anti-Mobuto forces that led to the First Congo War. During the Second Congo War, Rwanda backed the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RDC) against the new Kabila government. 2009 saw relations between Rwanda and DR Congo improve – ambassadors were exchanged, commitments to develop joint economic projects were made (including the exploitation of natural gas reserves in Lake Kivu), and joint military operations took place against the FDLR.

Uganda: As with Rwanda, Uganda backed Kabila’s anti-Mobutu campaign, and then anti-Kabila militia in the form of the MLC. Anti-Ugandan rebels, the LRA, operate in north DR Congo. In 2005 the International Court of Justice ruled that Uganda had to pay compensation to DR Congo for looting which occurred during the 1998-2003 war.

United Nations Mission in DR Congo (MONUC): The largest and most expensive peacekeeping mission in the UN’s history, comprising of around 18,500 uniformed personnel and a 09/10 budget of $1.35 billion. A withdrawal is planned for 2011. However many see this as unrealistic given the continued security pressures DR Congo sees from militia groups.
MONUC is responsible for ensuring the protection of civilians, including humanitarian personnel, who are under threat of physical violence from any of the parties engaged in the conflict. However, the force lacks the troop strength and mobility to meet this challenge across a large area with very poor infrastructure. MONUC is helping the Congolese Army to wipe out the FLDR, but the UN has failed to answer the fundamental question about MONUC’s relationship to the Congolese Army: What will MONUC do if it turns out that it is FARDC itself which is the most direct threat to the civilian population?

Kimia II and Amani Leo: Kimia II and then Amani Leo: Meaning ‘peace’ in Lingala, Kimia II was a joint FARDC-MONUC military operation launched in mid-2009 to disarm the Hutu militias – particularly the FDLR – in North and South Kivu. However, many accused the operation of worsening the situation in the region, with civilians not being adequately protected, whilst the overall objective of the operation – to remove the threat of the FDLR – is unlikely to be met. It officially ceased at the end of 2009, following widespread criticism caused by the reported 1,400 citizens killed by Congolese or Rwandan troops and rebels in Kimia II. It was replaced by Amani Leo, which had very similar aims to Kimia but more of a focus on civilian protection. The aim of Amani Leo is to maintain control of strategic zones; prevent armed groups from regaining control of territories once they have been evicted; prevent reprisal attacks; create favourable conditions for stabilisation and the restoration of State authority; facilitate coordination and build cooperation between military forces and civilian populations in order to improve civilian protection.
Despite ongoing criticism, the UN maintains that their operations are essential if there is ever to be peace in the Kivus. For a robust defence of the operation by the UN’s Alan Doss, see here.

National Army

Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo (FARDC): The Congolese military is made up of elements from all the former rebel groups. In order to enhance integration, new brigades are formed through a process called ’brassage’ (‘mixing up’), in which soldiers from formerly warring rebel groups are placed together. However, there are consistent reports of ongoing human rights violations, especially sexual violence, on the part of FARDC recruits.

Politicians/key figures

Mobuto Sese Seko: President of DR Congo (then Zaire) for 30 years, Mobutu came to power in a coup in 1965 and earned a reputation for being one of the world’s most foremost examples of kleptocracy and nepotism. Upon coming to power, he proclaimed that it had taken ‘the politicians’ five years to ruin the country, and therefore “for five years, there will be no more political party activity in the country“. Mobutu was a staunch anti-communist, and despite his brutal and authoritarian rule, was a key ally of the USA during the Cold War. Mobutu is estimated to have amassed a fortune of over $4 billion by diverting aid money into his personal accounts and by turning most opposition into submission through patronage or killing. He embarked on a campaign of pro-Africa cultural awareness (‘Authenticité’). He was overthrown in the First Congo War by Laurent Kabila, who was at the time supported by the governments of Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda. He died in exile in Morocco from cancer in 1997.

Laurent-Désiré Kabila: In October 1996 Kabila led ethnic Tutsis from South Kivu against Hutu forces, marking the beginning of the First Congo War. With support from Burundi, Uganda and Rwanda, Kabila pushed his forces into a full-scale rebellion against Mobutu as the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (ADFL). In May 1997 Kabila proclaimed himself President, suspended the Constitution and changed the name of the country from Zaire to Democratic Republic of Congo. He was assassinated by his bodyguards in January 2001.

Joseph Kabila: Current President of DR Congo, elected in 2006 for a five year term. Son of Laurent-Désiré Kabila, he became President in 2001 following the assassination of his father. He signed the 2002 Peace Agreement which ended the Second Congo War. He has enjoyed the support of western governments, for example the French and American governments, as well as regional allies such as Angola and South Africa. Under UN Resolution 1804, President Kabila is obliged to disarm and repatriate the FDLR. Instead however, he views them as tacit allies against Gen Nkunda’s forces.

Laurent Nkunda: Laurent Nkunda is the founder and former leader of the CNDP, sympathetic to Congolese Tutsis and previously to the Tutsi-dominated government of Rwanda. During the First Congo War he fought alongside Kabila to successfully overthrow Mobutu. However, following a deal between Congolese President Kabila and the Rwandan President Kagame, Nkunda was arrested by his former Rwandan backers in January 2009, and is currently being held in an undisclosed location.

Political parties/armed groups

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR): A militia group formed by Hutu extremists – many of whom participated in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 – and based in East DR Congo. During the Second Congo War (1998-2003) Congolese President, Joseph Kabila, used the FDLR as a proxy force against the Rwandan-backed Rally for Congolese Democracy (RDC). The UN accuse the FDLR of a catalogue of abuses, including the use of rape as a weapon of war, the abduction of children to be used as soldiers, and using slaves for illegal extraction of DR Congo’s vast mineral wealth. Operation Kimia II is aiming to defeat or drive out the FDLR, but in an effort to convince the local population to turn against Kimia II, the FDLR have made their intimidation, co-option and punishment of Congolese citizens a central component of their strategy.

National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP): Formed in 2006 by Laurent Nkunda, and allied with Rwanda, the CNDP was involved in heavy violence in North Kivu against the Congolese government army and the FDLR. In January 2009, the CNDP split after Bosco Ntaganda declared he would be taking over leadership from Laurent Nkunda. It has since agreed to become a political party and have its former armed members be incorporated into the national army, in exchange for the release of its imprisoned members.

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Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC): The Ugandan-backed militia force fighting against the Congolese government in the Second Congo War. It subsequently took part in the transitional government and is now the main opposition party, led by Jean-Pierre Bemba.

Rally for Congolese Democracy (RDC): The RDC formed in 1998 in response to the continued ethnic violence in East DR Congo, forging a campaign against Kabila. Backed by Rwanda, they were a major force in the Second Congo War, and the core were composed of former ADFL members. There are now several different factions of the RDC.

Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL): The AFDL was a coalition of Congolese dissidents, disgruntled minority groups and nations that toppled President Mobutu Sese Seko and brought Laurent Kabila to power in the First Congo War (1996-1997). While the group was successful in overthrowing the Mobutu dictatorship, the alliance fell apart after Kabila and his Ugandan and Rwandan backers turned on each other, marking the beginning of the Second Congo War on August 2, 1998.

Lords Resistance Army (LRA): Perhaps the most notorious rebel militia in sub-Saharan Africa. Defined as a terrorist organisation by the USA, and accused of widespread human violations, including the use of child soldiers and sexual enslavement, the LRA have fought a guerrilla war against Uganda for the past 20 years. Its operations have since spread to neighbouring countries including Sudan, Central African Republic and DR Congo. It is estimated that over 1,000 civilians have been killed by the LRA in northern DR Congo in the past two years, including the ‘Christmas Massacre‘ in which over 400 people were murdered in the days over Christmas 2008. As recently as August 2010 a humans right monitor claimed the LRA had carried out a campaign of mass abductions on both sides of the remote border between the Central African Republic and the DRC.

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