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Conflict Profile.
The recent crisis in Darfur has caught the world’s attention, with the US labelling it a ‘genocide’ and the UN declaring it the ‘world’s worst humanitarian crisis’, it is however by no means the only conflict to affect the Sudanese people. Decades of violence during the North-South civil war followed by a fragile peace agreement mean that the legacies of violence remain, and numerous localised conflicts continue.Â
Historical Context
Sudan was under British-Egyptian control until independence between 1899 and1956, with Darfur joining the protectorate in 1916. The North and South were separated by their Anglo-Egyptian rulers until 1946. During this period the majority of development was focused in the North, with the South and other peripheral regions, including Darfur, both politically and economically marginalised.Â
North-South Civil War
When the North and South were merged in 1946 the majority of power was given to the North, leaving many in the South resentful. In the lead up to independence in 1955 the South began a rebellion motivated by fears of further marginalisation. This conflict was ended by a peace agreement in 1972. The fragile peace was soon ruptured however by violations of the peace agreement, division of the regions, and the nationwide imposition of Sharia law; leading to the outbreak of open conflict in 1983. This conflict lasted 22 years, and is estimated to have killed 2 million, making another 4 million homeless.  In 2005 the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) was signed by the Sudan Peoples’ Liberation Movement (SPLM) and the National Congress Party (NCP) in Khartoum, bringing an official end to the conflict.Â
Regional Conflicts and Darfur
Tensions in Darfur began building during the 1980s when severe drought drove many from Northern Darfur further South, increasing competition for land. This problem was exacerbated by different ideas about land ownership, and the abolishment of local councils who would traditionally deal with such conflicts in 1989. In 2003 the Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) rose up against the government . Arab militia, known as Janjaweed, have used scorched earth tactics which include the widespread rape, killing and abduction of both rebels and civilians. The government is widely accused of using the Janjaweed to respond to the rebellion, although they deny this.Â
A ceasefire was signed between the government and a faction of the SLA in 2006, but this agreement was rejected by both the JEM and al-Nur (another faction of the SLA), fracturing rebel alliances and changing the dynamics of the conflict.  In 2008 a combined UN-AU peacekeeping force was deployed in the region (UNAMID). The JEM and government signed a goodwill agreement in 2009 and a ceasefire in February 2010; however talks have since stalled.
In addition to the conflict in the Western region of Darfur numerous localized conflicts have turned violent. Legacies of violence compounded by conflict for oil and other natural resources, political rivalries, and disappointment with the CPA, have led to increasing instability in areas including South Kordofan, Jonglei and the Blue Nile region.
Prospects for Peace
Despite huge oil revenues, the Sudanese economy is still incredibly weak, and Sudan is ranked as one of the world’s most corrupt states. Tension is driven by both the failure of the CPA to recognise any rebel groups other than the SPLM, and the governments’ failure to implement many aspects of the CPA, especially in relation to democratic transformation, legal reform and accountability. In essence the CPA has really only achieved a division of power and wealth between the NCP in the North and the SPLM in the South, and numerous localised conflicts continue.Â
Tensions have led to a number of violent clashes, including those in 2008 over the disputed oil rich town of Abyei, although both sides have since accepted The Hague’s ruling over Abyei’s borders .  In June 2009 the UN reported that the death rate in the South had exceeded that of Darfur in the previous year. The 2010 elections, the first in 24 years, were also difficult; they were boycotted by opposition parties from the North and South, who called them unconstitutional and undemocratic.
Further conflict is anticipated over the right to a referendum on secession granted to the South in the CPA, which is due to take place in 2011. There are worries that Khartoum will not allow this referendum take place, as well as concerns for the safety of the 2 million Southern Sudanese currently living in the North of Sudan if the referendum were allowed to take place.
The situation in Darfur is similarly problematic. In 2009 UNAMID’s outgoing military commander stated that the conflict was effectively over; with isolated attacks and banditry causing the most problems; however there remain huge numbers of refugees and accusations of war crimes have gone largely unanswered. The ICC has issued an arrest warrant for President Bashir, citing his government’s links with the Janjaweed militia. The UN estimates that 300,000 may have died, although the government puts this figure closer to 10,000.  Up to 2.7 million have also been driven from their homes and are now living in IDP camps in Darfur and refugee camps in neighbouring Chad and Central African Republic.Â
The conflicts have also contributed to poor relations between Sudan and its neighbours. The conflict has spilled over in Chad and CAR, and both countries accuse Sudan of sponsoring rebel incursions. There are also reports that the Ugandan Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) has moved into Darfur.Â
Ezo Refugee Camp, close to the borders of Congo and CAR, both areas in which the Lord's Resistance Army operates.
Conflict Timeline
Key People and Parties
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| Conflict. | Resolution. |
|---|---|
Governance Sudan's Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) allocated 52% of seats to the National Congress Party, 28% to the Sudan People Liberation Movement (SPLM), 6% to other Southern forces and the remainder to a variety of other parties. Both Eastern Sudan and Darfur (Western Sudan) have grievances about representation. Further, elections have not been held in Sudan since 2000. Because of the critical importance of the imbalance of political power, the 2009 elections have the potential for further conflict, and this is even more true of the 2011 referendum. | — Local peacebuilding can educate people about the CPA and equip local communities to identify the early warning signs of conflict between rival supporter groups, and take rapid action to prevent it escalating. — The Paralegal and Human Rights Centre provides legal services and spreads knowledge of benefits of the CPA — Collaborative for Peace in Sudan is involved in educating communities about the CPA — Community Animation Friend Association (CAFA) speaks directly to local people in order to promote the benefits of the CPA — ALAM is a group of teachers that raise awareness of the CPA amongst young people — Sudanese Studies Centre offers training in democracy and human rights to ensure people have the knowledge to voice their opinions on peace in Sudan — Babiker Badri seeks to empower women & young people by ensuring they have a full understanding of the peace process — AlAbasia aims to increase the public role of women and bring them fully into the peacebuilding process. |
Ethnic Tension There are many complex tensions between groups; pastoralists and agriculturalists; different tribal groups; north and south; and a combination of all these and more. There are many traditional conflict resolution strategies to deal with these. Many think that climate change and/or population pressures are intensifying these pressures, which may trigger much more intense and widespread conflicts, as in Darfur. | — Local peacebuilders have a large part to play in tackling these conflicts, for example through bringing people together in order to prevent conflict, providing local people with training in conflict resolution and prevention, and mediating directly between groups in conflict. — Together Art Centre brings together conflicting groups through promotion of Sudanese art & culture. — AZZA trains vulnerable groups in peaceful conflict resolution — Turath Organisation for Human Development assist in direct mediation of tribes in conflict — SIRC trains religious leaders in spreading the idea of peace — The Paralegal and Human Rights Centre directly facilitates local conflict resolution |
Exploitation & Competition over Natural Resources Licensing of oil blocks without regard to environmental standards has in some cases led to serious pollution, unfair compensation and other forms of harm to local communities, leading to sporadic attacks on oil company staff and property. Furthermore, although the allocation of oil revenues in the CPA is not contentious there is a serious lack of transparency about actual money flows. | — Local peacebuilding can highlight the costs to oil companies of conflict with communities, while educating communities that they need to think beyond one off community development projects. |
Proxy conflicts with Uganda and Chad Traditionally Uganda has supported the SPLA and in retaliation Sudan has supported the Lord’s Resistance Army. Incursions by the latter into the border region have led to instability and abductions. Recently similar issues have arisen with Chad. | |
DDR (Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration) As with many post-conflict situations, the existence of semi-demobilised former soldiers is creating a pool of armed young men, not under any form of army discipline. In Darfur, the failure of the 2006 peace agreement triggered the fragmentation of rebel groups, thus making any form of peace agreement harder to achieve. | — Local peacebuilding can be well placed to develop a holistic approach to DDR, ensuring that district level disarmament is co-ordinated, and genuine livelihood options offered — MAMAN works against the spread of small arms, and the use of child soldiers in Sudan. |
