DR Congo: Key People and Parties.

General Terms

Mai-Mai militia: The term Mai-Mai is a generic term that refers to any community-led militia formed with the intention of defending their territory against other armed groups. The term does not describe any particular movement, affiliation or political objective, but groups which can be led by tribal elders, warlords, village heads or politically-motivated resistance fighters. Many were formed to resist the invasion of Rwandan forces and Rwandan-affiliated Congolese rebel groups. However, others have formed simply to exploit the war for their own means, such as by banditry, looting or cattle rustling. The two most powerful and well-organised Mai-Mai groups in the Kivus were led by Generals Padiri and Dunia. They were reported to have received aid from the DR Congo government and are widely viewed by other Mai-Mai groups as the leaders, though not the commanders, of the Kivu Mai-Mai. A number of smaller Mai-Mai groups, such as the Mudundu 40/Front de Résistance et de Défense du Kivu (FRDKI) and Mouvement de Lutte contre l’Agression au Zaïre/Forces Unies de Résistance Nationale contre l’Agression de la Républíque Démocratique du Congo (MLAZ/FURNAC), were reported to cooperate with the Rwandan military and RCD-Goma. This demonstrates how different Mai-Mai groups have allied themselves with a variety of domestic and foreign government and guerrilla groups at different times. Due to their lack of internal cohesion it has been very difficult to get the Mai-Mai involved in peace agreements, and it is often down to programmes of demobilisation, demilitarisation and reintegration (DDR) to get these militia to lay down their weapons.

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Neighbouring Countries/International Actors

Rwanda: Following the genocide of 1994, millions of Hutus, fearing retaliatory violence, fled Rwanda to neighbouring DR Congo. Among those refugees were elements of the Interahamwe militia groups responsible for the genocide, and upon arrival in DR Congo, continued their campaign of ethnic violence. Mobuto, with his grip on power loosening, did nothing to stop them, causing Rwanda to back the anti-Mobuto forces that led to the First Congo War. During the Second Congo War, Rwanda backed the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RDC) against the new Kabila government. 2009 saw relations between Rwanda and DR Congo improve – ambassadors were exchanged, commitments to develop joint economic projects were made (including the exploitation of natural gas reserves in Lake Kivu), and joint military operations took place against the FDLR.

Uganda: As with Rwanda, Uganda backed Kabila’s anti-Mobutu campaign, and then anti-Kabila militia in the form of the MLC. Anti-Ugandan rebels, the LRA, operate in north DR Congo. In 2005 the International Court of Justice ruled that Uganda had to pay compensation to DR Congo for looting which occurred during the 1998-2003 war.

United Nations Mission in DR Congo (MONUC): The largest and most expensive peacekeeping mission in the UN’s history, comprising of around 18,500 uniformed personnel and a 09/10 budget of $1.35 billion. A withdrawal is planned for 2011. However many see this as unrealistic given the continued security pressures DR Congo sees from militia groups.
MONUC is responsible for ensuring the protection of civilians, including humanitarian personnel, who are under threat of physical violence from any of the parties engaged in the conflict. However, the force lacks the troop strength and mobility to meet this challenge across a large area with very poor infrastructure. MONUC is helping the Congolese Army to wipe out the FLDR, but the UN has failed to answer the fundamental question about MONUC’s relationship to the Congolese Army: What will MONUC do if it turns out that it is FARDC itself which is the most direct threat to the civilian population?

Kimia II and Amani Leo: Kimia II and then Amani Leo: Meaning ‘peace’ in Lingala, Kimia II was a joint FARDC-MONUC military operation launched in mid-2009 to disarm the Hutu militias – particularly the FDLR – in North and South Kivu. However, many accused the operation of worsening the situation in the region, with civilians not being adequately protected, whilst the overall objective of the operation – to remove the threat of the FDLR – is unlikely to be met. It officially ceased at the end of 2009, following widespread criticism caused by the reported 1,400 citizens killed by Congolese or Rwandan troops and rebels in Kimia II. It was replaced by Amani Leo, which had very similar aims to Kimia but more of a focus on civilian protection. The aim of Amani Leo is to maintain control of strategic zones; prevent armed groups from regaining control of territories once they have been evicted; prevent reprisal attacks; create favourable conditions for stabilisation and the restoration of State authority; facilitate coordination and build cooperation between military forces and civilian populations in order to improve civilian protection.
Despite ongoing criticism, the UN maintains that their operations are essential if there is ever to be peace in the Kivus. For a robust defence of the operation by the UN’s Alan Doss, see here.

National Army

Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo (FARDC): The Congolese military is made up of elements from all the former rebel groups. In order to enhance integration, new brigades are formed through a process called ’brassage’ (‘mixing up’), in which soldiers from formerly warring rebel groups are placed together. However, there are consistent reports of ongoing human rights violations, especially sexual violence, on the part of FARDC recruits.

Politicians/key figures

Mobuto Sese Seko: President of DR Congo (then Zaire) for 30 years, Mobutu came to power in a coup in 1965 and earned a reputation for being one of the world’s most foremost examples of kleptocracy and nepotism. Upon coming to power, he proclaimed that it had taken ‘the politicians’ five years to ruin the country, and therefore “for five years, there will be no more political party activity in the country“. Mobutu was a staunch anti-communist, and despite his brutal and authoritarian rule, was a key ally of the USA during the Cold War. Mobutu is estimated to have amassed a fortune of over $4 billion by diverting aid money into his personal accounts and by turning most opposition into submission through patronage or killing. He embarked on a campaign of pro-Africa cultural awareness (‘Authenticité’). He was overthrown in the First Congo War by Laurent Kabila, who was at the time supported by the governments of Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda. He died in exile in Morocco from cancer in 1997.

Laurent-Désiré Kabila: In October 1996 Kabila led ethnic Tutsis from South Kivu against Hutu forces, marking the beginning of the First Congo War. With support from Burundi, Uganda and Rwanda, Kabila pushed his forces into a full-scale rebellion against Mobutu as the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (ADFL). In May 1997 Kabila proclaimed himself President, suspended the Constitution and changed the name of the country from Zaire to Democratic Republic of Congo. He was assassinated by his bodyguards in January 2001.

Joseph Kabila: Current President of DR Congo, elected in 2006 for a five year term. Son of Laurent-Désiré Kabila, he became President in 2001 following the assassination of his father. He signed the 2002 Peace Agreement which ended the Second Congo War. He has enjoyed the support of western governments, for example the French and American governments, as well as regional allies such as Angola and South Africa. Under UN Resolution 1804, President Kabila is obliged to disarm and repatriate the FDLR. Instead however, he views them as tacit allies against Gen Nkunda’s forces.

Laurent Nkunda: Laurent Nkunda is the founder and former leader of the CNDP, sympathetic to Congolese Tutsis and previously to the Tutsi-dominated government of Rwanda. During the First Congo War he fought alongside Kabila to successfully overthrow Mobutu. However, following a deal between Congolese President Kabila and the Rwandan President Kagame, Nkunda was arrested by his former Rwandan backers in January 2009, and is currently being held in an undisclosed location.

Political parties/armed groups

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR): A militia group formed by Hutu extremists – many of whom participated in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 – and based in East DR Congo. During the Second Congo War (1998-2003) Congolese President, Joseph Kabila, used the FDLR as a proxy force against the Rwandan-backed Rally for Congolese Democracy (RDC). The UN accuse the FDLR of a catalogue of abuses, including the use of rape as a weapon of war, the abduction of children to be used as soldiers, and using slaves for illegal extraction of DR Congo’s vast mineral wealth. Operation Kimia II is aiming to defeat or drive out the FDLR, but in an effort to convince the local population to turn against Kimia II, the FDLR have made their intimidation, co-option and punishment of Congolese citizens a central component of their strategy.

National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP): Formed in 2006 by Laurent Nkunda, and allied with Rwanda, the CNDP was involved in heavy violence in North Kivu against the Congolese government army and the FDLR. In January 2009, the CNDP split after Bosco Ntaganda declared he would be taking over leadership from Laurent Nkunda. It has since agreed to become a political party and have its former armed members be incorporated into the national army, in exchange for the release of its imprisoned members.

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Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC): The Ugandan-backed militia force fighting against the Congolese government in the Second Congo War. It subsequently took part in the transitional government and is now the main opposition party, led by Jean-Pierre Bemba.

Rally for Congolese Democracy (RDC): The RDC formed in 1998 in response to the continued ethnic violence in East DR Congo, forging a campaign against Kabila. Backed by Rwanda, they were a major force in the Second Congo War, and the core were composed of former ADFL members. There are now several different factions of the RDC.

Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL): The AFDL was a coalition of Congolese dissidents, disgruntled minority groups and nations that toppled President Mobutu Sese Seko and brought Laurent Kabila to power in the First Congo War (1996-1997). While the group was successful in overthrowing the Mobutu dictatorship, the alliance fell apart after Kabila and his Ugandan and Rwandan backers turned on each other, marking the beginning of the Second Congo War on August 2, 1998.

Lords Resistance Army (LRA): Perhaps the most notorious rebel militia in sub-Saharan Africa. Defined as a terrorist organisation by the USA, and accused of widespread human violations, including the use of child soldiers and sexual enslavement, the LRA have fought a guerrilla war against Uganda for the past 20 years. Its operations have since spread to neighbouring countries including Sudan, Central African Republic and DR Congo. It is estimated that over 1,000 civilians have been killed by the LRA in northern DR Congo in the past two years, including the ‘Christmas Massacre‘ in which over 400 people were murdered in the days over Christmas 2008. As recently as August 2010 a humans right monitor claimed the LRA had carried out a campaign of mass abductions on both sides of the remote border between the Central African Republic and the DRC.